1. Introduction
The Mekong Delta is the southernmost region of Vietnam and is one of the important regions of the country. The Mekong Delta covers approximately 12 % of the national area and is home to one-fifth of Vietnam’s population. The region provides more than 50 percent of Viet Nam’s staple food crop production and marine fisheries and aquaculture, worth up to USD 2.7 billion annually (WWF, 2016). The regional GDP growth rate for the Mekong Delta averaged 6.95 % during the years 2016-18, close to the national average over the same period (Tran, 2019).
The Mekong Delta is the downstream part of the Mekong River bordering the sea, with low and fairly flat terrain with two large low-lying areas, Dong Thap Muoi and Long Xuyen Quadrangle. Along with the main streams - Tien and Hau rivers, the Mekong Delta has an interlaced system of canals, creating favorable conditions for saline intrusion due to tides bringing salt water deep into the river and inland areas, especially during the dry season, when the flow from the upper Mekong River is low.
Due to its geographical location, the Mekong Delta is influenced by tides from both the East and West seas. During the dry season, when the flow of water in the upstream decreases, the tide strongly affects the upstream and the inland canal system, leading to deep salinity intrusion in the river and in the field. Therefore, salinity intrusion in this area is a complicated process that depends on the magnitude of the upstream flow during the dry season and the amount of sea level increase. Over 50% of the Mekong Delta area (39,330 km2) is saline, including the provinces of Long An, Tien Giang, Ben Tre, Tra Vinh, Soc Trang, Bac Lieu, Ca Mau and Kien Giang (NASATI, 2016). Increasing salinity levels in the Mekong Delta have significantly affected agricultural production, especially for crops with a low tolerance to salinity. Salinity intrusion is one of the most significant threats in the Mekong Delta, especially in the context of changing climate and rising sea level, leading to negative impacts on the livelihoods of local people.
In response to salinity intrusion, Mekong Delta farmers have adopted various strategies based on their own knowledge of farming and/or based on neighbour suggestions. The most popular non-engineering adaptation measures were changes to farming systems through altering planting times, adjusting planting techniques, shifting to other crop varieties, changing irrigation schedule, diversifying income sources reinforcing safety for humans and assets and other measures (Hoa Dang, 2014; T. Dung Khong, 2019). Alternatively, infrastructure such as coastal sea dikes and sluice gates have been identified as a viable strategy for salinity intrusion risk reduction.
Cai Lon - Cai Be sluice gate project is the largest sluice system in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, with the cost of VND3.3 trillion (equivalent to US$142 million). The main functions of the infrastructure include controlling water sources for cultivation and fishery production in the beneficiary area of 384,120 hectare in five provinces including Kien Giang, Hau Giang, Ca Mau, Bac Lieu and Soc Trang. It contributes to the supply of fresh water in the dry season and to reduce the flood in rainy season. The sluice gate and the west sea dyke also form an infrastructure system to proactively respond to climate change, sea level rise and natural disaster and to reduce inundation due to land subsidence. On February 5, 2021, Cai Be sluice gate was put into operation, promptly preventing salinity intrusion for Kien Giang province. Cai Be sluice gate would save VND 12 billion for the locality in the dry season 2020-2021 as otherwise 100 temporary dams must have been developed. Cai Lon sluice gate has been operating since March 2022.
Lack of public support for adaptation can present significant barriers for implementation A systematic review found that for coastal climate change adaptation, hard protection options were often the most frequently preferred, likely due to a desire to maintain current shoreline, for the protection of recreational spaces and private property, and a perceived efficacy of hard protection options (Mallette, 2021). In the case of Cai Lon - Cai Be sluice gate in particular and measures responding to salinity intrusion in the Mekong Delta in general, there is a lot of controversy. Many doubt the possibility of preventing salinity of these works1. Thus, to gain the public support, it is important to understand the public perceived efficacy of the sluice gates system. This study aims to find out the (1) public awareness of salinity intrusion and (2) their perceived efficacy of sluice gates system in Kien Giang province. This study will provide insights about how to gain the support from the public for large project by the government in response to salinity intrusion.
2. Literature review
Community’s preferences for measures to respond to weather events have been studied in literature. Factors affecting the preferences for adaptation measures in coastal area are various, ranging from cognitive processes (e.g., perception of risk, psychological distancing, worldviews, beliefs), to social or cultural aspects (e.g., social ties, social norms, cultural traditions), to contextual aspects (e.g., location, demographic characteristics, previous experiences), to appraisal of the adaptation (e.g., financial, ecological, aesthetic benefits and concerns). However, several factors are more complex and multidimensional. For example, place attachment has aspects that are strongly emotional, cultural, social, and cognitive, and is also connected to appraisal considerations (for example, livelihood considerations). In addition, the conceptual boundaries of these factors are fuzzy, and some terms are used interchangeably (e.g., beliefs, values, worldviews). Perception of risk, place attachment, and financial considerations were the three most frequently occurring. It is commonly assumed that risk perception is directly influential on climate change beliefs, support for policies, or adaptive behaviours (Leiserowitz, 2006; Singh, Zwickle, Bruskotter, & Wilson, 2017). Some found a significant effect in either a positive or negative direction (Dachary-Bernard, Rey-Valette, & Rulleau, 2019; Milman, Warner, Chapman, & Short Gianotti, 2018; Rulleau, Rey-Valette, & Hérivaux, 2015), while others found no or mixed effect (Shao, Xian, Lin, & Small, 2017; Song & Peng, 2017). Similarly, demographic factors were one of the most reoccurring themes, but the effect of these factors is not consensus. Some found that age was important (Apine, 2011; McMichael, Katonivualiku, & Powell, 2019), while others found no differences (Treuer, Broad, & Meyer, 2018). The variable ‘location’ was found to have inconsistent effect (Mallette, 2021). In Vietnam, farmers’ preferences for sea dykes as a long-term public adaptation measure are affected by willingness-to-pay, housing value impact, impact on water supply for agricultural activities, households’ habitation environment and regional economics were significant determinants of farmers’ preferences. (T. Dung Khong, 2019)
The perceived efficacy of public goods are assessed in some studies. The Protection Motivation Theory and the extended Theory of Planned Behavior are used widely to identify the influencing factors (Jou & Mariñas, 2022; Kurata et al., 2023; Prasetyo, Castillo, Salonga, Sia, & Seneta, 2020). Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior, the perceived behavioural control, attitute towards behaviour and subjective norms have positive effect on perceived effectiveness (Kurata et al., 2023). Perceived efficacy can also be impacted indirectly by perceived vulnerability and perceived severity (Prasetyo et al., 2020). Perceived government response had significant effects on perceived effectiveness (Jou & Mariñas, 2022).
3. Method
Data collection
Data were collected by direct interview method with both rice farming and shrimp-rice farming households. For comparative analysis purpose, the survey focused on the farms within the protected area of Cai Lon - Cai Be sluice gates (in Binh An Commune, Minh Hoa Commune of Chau Thanh District and in Hung Yen Commune, Dong Yen Commune of An Biên District) and also the farms outside of the protected area of Cai Lon - Cai Be sluice gates (in Binh Giang Commune, Linh Huynh Commune and Son Binh Commune of Hon Dat District. The survey had a total of 213 respondents, consisting of 50 rice farming households and 55 shrimp-rice farming households in the protected area of Cai Lon - Cai Be sluice gates and 70 rice farming households and 38 shrimp-rice farming households outside of the protected area of Cai Lon - Cai Be sluice gates. The content of the questionnaire included household information, production, expenditure and income information, perception of salinity intrusion, the private adaptation measures and assessment of public measures to salinity intrusion.
Before the official survey was implemented, the questionnaire was pilot tested with 10 household-heads to ascertain whether or not farmers could understand the questions and
information provided. The pilot also had the role of training the enumators on the questionnaires. The enumerators for the study were carefully chosen from the staffs of local Agricultural Extension Agencies.
Data analysis
Likert scales are widely employed to collect respondents’ attitudes and opinions. Liker scale is simple to construct and likely to produce a highly reliable scale. Besides, from the perspective of participants, it is easy to read and complete. To date, a number of risk perception and attitudinal studies have also adopted/modified Likert-scale measurement in their field research, e.g. Hoa Dang. (2014), Hoa Dang (2014), T. Dung Khong (2019). The seven-point scale appears to be widely preferred because it contains a neutral position that enhances measurement quality (Nowlis, 2002) Hence, the dimensions in this analysis were measured based on the seven-point Likert-type scale.
The model of perceived efficacy of farmers of the sluice gates can then be expressed as follows:
PE = β1 + β2H + β3Location + β4 Impacts + β5WTP + β6Trust + ε (1)
where PE represents perceived efficacy of farmers of the sluice gates in response to climate change; H is the group of household characteristics including gender, age, level of education, household size and monthly income; Location represents the districts where the household lives which is 0 if the farmer lives in Cai Lon - Cai Be sluice gates’ protected area (Chau Thanh and An Bien district) and is 1 if the farmer lives in Hon Dat which is outside the proteced area of Cai Lon - Cai Be sluice gates; Impacts are the impacts of salinity intrusion on the farmers’ living condition, which are reducing income, affecting the water for production, affecting the domestic water, reducing crop production, reducing aquaculture production, affecting human health, affecting environmental health, reducing value of assets and causing worry of damage; WTP is the willingness to pay per hectare per year for better sluice gates; and Trust captures the trust of the farmers on the states’ measures. Multicollinearity is checked with the variance inflation factor (VIF) values. The results of VIF values show no significant signs of this problem.
4. Results
4.1. Demographic characteristics of the respondents
The descriptive statistics of sample is presented in Table 1. The mean age of the respondents in Chau Thanh and An Bien is 54 (standard deviation is 12.72) while in Hon Dat is 49.2 (standard deviation is 12.74). The female is 29, accounts for 13.6% and male is 177 or 86.4% of the respondents. Only 10 people interviewed are single, the others are married. Most of the households in the survey are of Kinh and Khmer ethnicity. The average household size is 4.85 and 4.23 in Chau Thanh & An Bien and Hon Dat respectively. The education level is low. 25.1% finished primary school and 19.7% reached secondary school, which are the majority of the respondents. 170 households in the sample have the annual income of less than VND 300 mil. There are 15 households which have the annual income of more than VND600 mil., all of which are in Hon Dat. They are the owners of industrial shrimp farms.
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the respondents
|
Location
|
Hon Dat
|
Chau Thanh & An Bien
|
Mean
|
Count
|
Mean
|
Count
|
Age
|
49.2
|
|
54
|
|
Gender
|
Male
|
|
91
|
|
93
|
Female
|
|
17
|
|
12
|
Ethnicity
|
Kinh
|
|
66
|
|
74
|
Khmer
|
|
41
|
|
30
|
Chinese
|
|
1
|
|
1
|
Champa
|
|
0
|
|
0
|
Others
|
|
0
|
|
0
|
Marital status
|
Single
|
|
7
|
|
3
|
Married
|
|
101
|
|
102
|
Education level
|
No education
|
|
11
|
|
6
|
Primary school
|
|
40
|
|
44
|
Secondary school
|
|
45
|
|
41
|
High school
|
|
5
|
|
11
|
Vocational school
|
|
2
|
|
1
|
Undergraduate
|
|
1
|
|
1
|
Household size
|
4.23
|
|
4.85
|
|
Annual household's income
|
Less than VND50 mil.
|
|
12
|
|
7
|
From VND50 mil. to less than VND100 mil.
|
|
18
|
|
23
|
From VND100mil. to less than VND150 mil.
|
|
14
|
|
19
|
From VND150 mil. to less than VND200 mil.
|
|
16
|
|
20
|
From VND200 mil. to less than VND250 mil.
|
|
12
|
|
14
|
From VND250 mil. to less than VND300 mil.
|
|
7
|
|
8
|
From VND300 mil. to less than VND350 mil.
|
|
4
|
|
5
|
From VND400 mil. to less than VND450 mil.
|
|
4
|
|
3
|
From VND450 mil. to less than VND500 mil.
|
|
2
|
|
1
|
From VND500 mil. to less than VND550 mil.
|
|
0
|
|
0
|
From VND550 mil. to less than VND600 mil.
|
|
1
|
|
2
|
From VND600 mil.
|
|
15
|
|
0
|
No income
|
|
0
|
|
0
|
I don't know
|
|
2
|
|
0
|
4.2. Perception of salinity intrusion
Each farm household head was asked to assess the impacts of salinity intrusion in recent years, ranging from 1 = not severe at all to 7 = extremely severe. The results reveal that negative influences on income, water for production and rice production are the most concern of the farmers. There are 44 missing observations in the question on the impact of aquaculture production as they are the rice farmers. Fewer were concerned about impacts on daily water supplies. Salinity is necessary for aquaculture production, and the water for shrimp farmings can be controlled by the farmers, therefore the impacts on aquaculture production is the less concerned issue.
Table 2. Perception of salinity impacts
|
Reducing the income
|
Reducing value of assets
|
Affecting the water for production
|
Affecting the domestic water
|
Reducing crop production
|
Reducing aquaculture production
|
Affecting human health
|
Causing worry of damage
|
Affecting environmental health
|
Other impacts
|
Mean
|
4.90
|
4.27
|
4.95
|
4.07
|
5.23
|
2.64
|
3.38
|
4.60
|
3.98
|
4.13
|
Median
|
5.00
|
5.00
|
6.00
|
4.00
|
6.00
|
1.00
|
4.00
|
5.00
|
4.00
|
4.00
|
Mode
|
7
|
1
|
7
|
1
|
7
|
1
|
1
|
7
|
1
|
4
|
Std. Deviation
|
2.180
|
2.152
|
2.101
|
2.216
|
2.104
|
2.069
|
2.102
|
2.198
|
2.097
|
1.586
|
The question on the cause of salinity intrusion was asked with the answer ranging from 1 = extremely disagree to 7 = extremely agree. The survey shows that sea level rise is considered the main reason for salinity intrusion with the mean value of 6.03. Drought rank the second important cause as assessed by the respondents with 93 chose the level 7 for their answer. Sea level rise and drought are among the signs of climate change, thus it can be seen that the farmers in the survey area are clearly aware of the change in the climate in recent years.
Table 3. Perception of the cause of salinity intrusion
|
N
|
Minimum
|
Maximum
|
Mean
|
Std. Deviation
|
Sea level rise
|
213
|
1
|
7
|
6.03
|
1.405
|
Lack of fresh water from upstream
|
212
|
1
|
7
|
5.21
|
2.009
|
Drought
|
212
|
1
|
7
|
5.64
|
1.748
|
Reduced water reserved
|
210
|
1
|
7
|
4.61
|
1.889
|
Increasing demand for water
|
209
|
1
|
7
|
4.24
|
2.046
|
81 people (38%) of the respondents forecast that in the next 3 years, salinity intrusion in the area would increase. They explained that the trend of salinity intrusion had been increasing over time. 21.6% had the opposite answer because they assessed that the salinity intrusion was of the most severe in the year 2019-2020, thus in the future it would decrease. 38 respondents thought the level of salinity intrustion would unchange and 31 said that they did not know. 17 people (8%) had no answer.
Table 4. Forecast of salinity intrusion in the next 3 years
|
Frequency
|
Percent
|
|
I don't know
|
31
|
14.6
|
Unchanged
|
38
|
17.8
|
Decrease
|
46
|
21.6
|
Increase
|
81
|
38.0
|
Total
|
196
|
92.0
|
|
Missing
|
17
|
8.0
|
Total
|
|
100.0
|
4.3. Perceived efficacy of the sluice gates
The perceived efficacy of the sluice gate system in Kien Giang is assessed by 5 questions: (1) The sluice gate system supplies sufficient water to meet the demands of agricultural production; (2) The sluice gate system supplies water at the right time for each crop; (3) The sluice gate system supplies water of good quality for each crop; (4) The sluice gate system is operated strictly as scheduled before; and (5) The sluice gate system is operated in the way that ensures the balance between different water users (i.e., rice farmers and shrimp farmers). The answer ranges from 1 = extremely disagree to 7 = extremely agree. Table 4 shows that the mean of the answer between two districts are relatively equal except the statement (4). The independent sample T-test also confirms that there is a significanly difference between the answers of the Chau Thanh and Hon Dat farmers in statement (4).
Table 5. Perceived efficacy of the sluice gate system in Kien Giang
|
Location
|
Mean
|
Std. Deviation
|
The sluice gate system supplies sufficient water to meet the demands of agricultural production
|
Hon Dat
|
5.61
|
1.528
|
Chau Thanh & An Bien
|
5.89
|
1.539
|
The sluice gate system supplies water at the right time for each crop.
|
Hon Dat
|
5.64
|
1.557
|
Chau Thanh & An Bien
|
5.81
|
1.631
|
The sluice gate system supplies water of good quality for each crop
|
Hon Dat
|
5.64
|
1.633
|
Chau Thanh & An Bien
|
5.90
|
1.536
|
The sluice gate system is operated strictly as scheduled before.
|
Hon Dat
|
6.01
|
1.370
|
Chau Thanh & An Bien
|
5.52
|
1.712
|
The sluice gate system is operated in the way that ensures the balance between different water users (i.e., rice farmers and shrimp farmers).
|
Hon Dat
|
5.67
|
1.626
|
Chau Thanh & An Bien
|
5.58
|
1.606
|
4.4. Trust in state’s measures in response to salinity intrusion
In response to salinity intrusion, the state has a variety of measures. They include forcasting and warning the salinity level, land use planning; restructuring crop and cultivation models, in particular selecting of plants and crops which can be tolerant to various salt limits; applying advanced cultivation techniques such as less water irrigation practices; and salinity intrusion control structures measures including dykes, dams and sluice gates. To investigate the farmers’ trust in public measures, three statements were used which are (1) State and local authorities know what they have to do to response to salinity intrusion; (2) The government salinity warning system is reliable; and (3) Public adaptation measures are very effective. The survey shows that the local farmers’ trust in public measures are of very high level with approximately 90% of the respondents agreed (choosing the answer 5 to 7 in a 7-point scale) with each statement. The means are 6.3, 6.39 and 6.31 for statement (1), (2), (3) respectively.
Table 6. Trust in state’s measures
|
Minimum
|
Maximum
|
Mean
|
Std. Deviation
|
State and local authorities know what they have to do to response to salinity intrusion
|
2
|
7
|
6.30
|
1.086
|
The government salinity warning system is reliable
|
1
|
7
|
6.39
|
1.078
|
Public adaptation measures are very effective
|
1
|
7
|
6.31
|
1.199
|
Chronbach’s Alpha coefficient of these three variables is 0.709. KMO is 0.635 and the total variance extracted was 63.87%. The factor loading coefficient of each observed variable showing all the factors is greater than 0.5. Thus, these three variables can be extracted as one components by factor scores.
4.5. Factors of influence perceived efficacy of the sluice gates
The Reliability Analysis show that Chronbach’s Alpha coefficient of the five variables expressing the perceived efficacy is 0.872, thus, the these measurement variables have reliability and are used in factor analysis. In the Exploratory factor analysis, KMO reached 0.822. The KMO index of the research model is greater than 0.5, showing that the application of exploratory factor analysis here is completely appropriate. The total variance extracted was 66.196%. The factor loading coefficient of each observed variable showing all the factors is greater than 0.5, showing that the observed variables all show the influence with the factors that these variables represent. The dependent variable is calculated as the factor scores.
Table 7 provides the final results of the linear regression analysis which were conducted for factors affecting the public perceived efficacy. The table shows the variables that are significant ( p-value < 0.1) in explaining the variations in the perceived efficacy of the sluice gates. The variables explain the variance in perceived efficacy of the sluice gates by 28.4%, which indicates a good fit for these types of models. The results show that the variables of location (Hon Dat vs. Chau Thanh & An Bien), impact of reducing income, impact of affecting water for production and trust in state’s measure have a statistically significant influence on the perceived efficacy of sluice gates. A VIF less than 5 indicates a low correlation of that predictor with other predictors, thus collinearity is not an issue in this model.
Table 7. Regression of factors affecting perceived efficacy of the sluice gates
Model
|
Standardized
Coefficients
|
t
|
Sig.
|
Collinearity
Statistics
|
Tolerance
|
VIF
|
1
|
(Constant)
|
|
-.293
|
.770
|
|
|
Age
|
-.092
|
-1.043
|
.300
|
.773
|
1.294
|
Gender
|
-.073
|
-.839
|
.404
|
.795
|
1.258
|
Education level
|
.054
|
.610
|
.543
|
.778
|
1.286
|
Household size
|
.081
|
.935
|
.352
|
.793
|
1.260
|
Annual household's income
|
.009
|
.101
|
.920
|
.736
|
1.358
|
Location
|
-.207**
|
-2.285
|
.024
|
.731
|
1.368
|
Reducing the income
|
.380**
|
2.199
|
.030
|
.202
|
4.957
|
Affecting the water for production
|
-.301*
|
-1.767
|
.080
|
.208
|
4.818
|
Affecting the domestic water
|
.222
|
1.555
|
.123
|
.294
|
3.396
|
Reducing crop production
|
-.041
|
-.271
|
.787
|
.257
|
3.889
|
Reducing aquaculture production
|
-.078
|
-.884
|
.379
|
.778
|
1.285
|
Affecting human health
|
.030
|
.238
|
.812
|
.370
|
2.699
|
Affecting environmental health
|
.199
|
1.347
|
.181
|
.275
|
3.631
|
Reducing value of assets
|
-.006
|
-.039
|
.969
|
.222
|
4.497
|
Causing worry of damage
|
-.193
|
-1.230
|
.221
|
.245
|
4.086
|
WTP per hectare per year
|
.049
|
.583
|
.561
|
.859
|
1.164
|
Trust in state's measures
|
.424***
|
4.983
|
.000
|
.831
|
1.203
|
The positive and significant coefficient of Location in the model implies that farmers in Chau Thanh has higher perceived efficacy of the sluice gates. Chau Thanh and An Bien’s agricultural area is mostly protected by Cai Lon - Cai Be sluice gate. When the survey was conducted, the Cai Be sluice gate was finished and put into operation, which helped the local farmers in Chau Thanh and An Bien avoid the impact of salinity intrusion in 2021. Thus, the community in the protected area of Cai Lon - Cai Be have the higher perceived efficacy of the sluice gates. Among the perceived impacts of salinity intrusion, there are two variables that significally influence the perceived efficacy of the sluice gates: reducing the income and affecting water for production. The coefficient of “reducing the income” is positive implies the higher concern of local farmers on reducing the income, the higher perceived efficacy of the sluice gates. However, the coefficient of variable “affecting the water for production” is negative with statistical significance show that the higher concern on impacts of salinity intrusion on water, the less perceived efficacy of the sluice gates. The shrimp farming households need saline water for production. In some parts in Hon Dat district where there are large industrial shrim farms, the sluice gates are close all around the year or open in only few days, leading to lack of saline water for shrimp famring. These farmers have the low expectations of the sluice gates, which can explain the negative influence of the variable “affecting the water for production” on the perceived efficacy. The variable “trust in state’s measures” have positive coefficient, which is consistent with the result of Jou and Mariñas (2022) that perceived government response had significant effects on perceived effectiveness.
5. Policy implications and conclusion
Saline intrusion is a natural disaster that greatly affects the lives and livelihoods of people in the Mekong Delta. In the context of increasing climate change, saline intrusion tends to become severe. In addition to "soft" adaptation measures, hard-structured measures solutions such as sluice gates are built widely in the Mekong Delta. However, the operation of these works has not yet met the needs of the people in ensuring fresh and salt-water sources for rice cultivation and aquaculture. Therefore, in order for people to support the construction of sluices gates, it is necessary to raise farmers’ perceived efficacy of sluice gates.
The study was conducted on 213 households in Kien Giang province with two groups, one group of households protected by the largest irrigation works in Vietnam - Cai Lon - Cai Be sluice gates and the other group protected by small sluice gates. The determinants of perceived efficacy of the sluice gates are the location, the perceived impacts of salinity intrusion on reducing the income and affecting the water for production, and the trust in states’ measures in response to salinity intrusion. Thus, in order to improve the perceived effectiveness of households for sluice gates, it is necessary to pay attention to the following issues: (1) improving the operating procedures of sluice gates, ensure water sources for both rice cultivation and aquaculture production; (2) enhancing the value of local agricultural products to increase the income for farmers and (3) increasing people's trust in the government's measures in response to salinity intrusion including forecasting and warning the salinity intrusion, updating the information on salinity level for farmers in the dry season and supporting the farmers in “soft” measures such as crop diversification and providing training on salt tolerance production.
Dr. Nguyen Dieu Hang, hangnd@neu.edu.vn
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nguyen Cong Thanh, thanhnc@neu.edu.vn
Dr. Nguyen Hoang Nam, namnh@neu.edu.vn
Faculty of Environmental, Climate Change and Urban Studies,
National Economics University, Hanoi, Vietnam
(International Conference ICSEED2023)
References
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